Strategy for GS by Ms. Rukmani Riar (AIR-2)

How to prepare for GS
General Studies is the most crucial paper of CSE. With the news taking rounds thatUPSC is planning to do away with the optionals the importance of GS has increased manifold.


Newspaper the best friend!
First and foremost reading a newspaper (I read Hindu) is the starting point. Now the question is how to read the paper. Initially one must spend 45 minutes to one hour on the paper. With time the duration can come down to half an hour. The national news, international news and the economy sections of the paper must not be ignored. One can choose to make notes from the paper daily and keep the editorials which can help immensely to answer essay, bilateral and international sections with ease and efficiency. As science and technology section of UPSC is very unpredictable therefore newspaper will be most handy means to answer this section. One more point to be kept in mind is that not to stop reading the paper at any time of the preparation, as this helps the aspirants to write up-to-date answers which will give them that extra edge needed to clear the exam with eminence. The notes made from the newspaper must be revised at least 2-3 times before the prelims and editorials be read once before the mains. You can separate the editorials subject wise (if they are on topics in optional syllabus) which will make the revision more organised.


Monthly Magazines

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GK Dose

General Knowledge Quiz Questions
1. The largest museum in the world is the American Museum of Natural History.
2. The lowest mountain range in the world is the Buena Bhaile.
3. The country known as the Land of Cakes is Scotland.
4. The place known as the Garden of England is Kent.
5. The tallest tower in the world is the C. N. Tower, Toronto, Canada.
6. The country famous for its fish catch is Japan.
7. The old name of Taiwan was Farmosa.
8. Montreal is situated on the bank of River Ottawa.
9. The city of Bonn is situated in Germany.
10. The literal meaning of Renaissance is Revival.
11. Julius Caesar was killed by Brutus.
12. The title of Desert Fox was given to Field Marshal Erwin Rommel.
13. The largest airport in the world is the King Khalid International Airport, Saudi Arabia.
14. The city in Russia which faced an earthquake in the year 1988 was Armenia. Later on it became a
separate country.
15. The largest bay in the world is Hudson Bay, Canada.
16. The largest church in the world is Basilica of St. Peter, Vatican City, Rome.
17. The largest peninsula in the world is Arabia.
18. The largest gulf in the world is Gulf of Mexico.
19. The tallest statue in the world is the Motherland, Volgograd Russia.
20. The largest railway tunnel in the world is the Oshimizu Tunnel, Japan.
21. The world's loneliest island is the Tristan da cunha.
22. The word 'Quiz' was coined by Jim Daly Irishman.
23. The original meaning of 'Quiz' was Trick.
24. The busiest shopping centre of London is Oxford Street.
25. The residence of the Queen in London is Buckingham Palace.
26. Adolf Hitler was born in Austria.
27. The country whose National Anthem has only music but no words is Bahrain.
28. The largest cinema in the world is the Fox theatre, Detroit, USA.
29. The country where there are no Cinema theatres is Saudi Arabia.
30. The world's tallest office building is the Sears Tower, Chicago.
31. In the year 1811, Paraguay became independent from Spain.
32. The cross word puzzle was invented by Arthur Wynne.
33. The city which was the capital of the ancient Persian Empire was Persepolis.
34. WHO stands for World Health Organization.
35. WHO (World Health Organization) is located at Geneva.
36. FAO stands for Food and Agriculture Organization.
37. FAO is located at Rome and London.
38. UNIDO stands for United Nations Industrial Development Organization.
39. UNIDO is located at Vienna.
40. WMO stands for World Meteorological Organization.
41. WMO is located at Geneva.
42. International Civil Aviation Organization is located at Montreal.
43. The Angel Falls is located in Venezuela.
44. The Victoria Falls is located in Rhodesia.


General Knowledge Facts
1. Ice Cream was discovered by Gerald Tisyum.
2. The number regarded as lucky number in Italy is thirteen.
3. Napoleon suffered from alurophobia which means Fear of cats.
4. The aero planes were used in war for the first time by Italians. (14 Oct.1911)
5. Slavery in America was abolished by Abraham Lincoln.
6. The Headquarters of textile manufacturing in England is Manchester.
7. The famous Island located at the mouth of the Hudson River is Manhattan.
8. The founder of plastic industry was Leo Hendrik Baekeland.
9. The country where military service is compulsory for women is Israel.
10. The country which has more than 10,000 golf courses is USA.
11. The famous painting 'Mona Lisa' is displayed at Louvre museum, Paris.
12. The earlier name for tomato was Love apple.
13. The first President of USA was George Washington.
14. The famous words 'Veni Vidi Vici' were said by Julius Caesar.
15. The practice of sterilization of surgical instruments was introduced by Joseph Lister.
16. The number of countries which participated in the first Olympic Games held at Athens was nine.
17. Mercury is also known as Quick Silver.
18. Disneyland is located in California, USA.
19. The country which built the first powerful long range rockets is Germany.
20. Sewing Machine was invented by Isaac M. Singer.
21. Adding Machine was invented by Aldrin.
22. The national emblem of Spain is Eagle.
23. Archimedes was born in Sicily.
24. The total area of Vatican City is 0.272 square kilometers.
25. The largest temple in the world is Angkor Wat in Kampuchea.
26. The largest dome in the world is Louisiana Superdome, New Orleans, USA.
27. The largest strait in the world is Tartar Strait

MIGRATION: ISSUES IN INDIA

Human migration is the movement of humans, either individually or in groups, from one geographical region to another. The phenomenon is as old as human history and almost all the present day societies owe their existence to some kind of migration. Migration could be due to a number of causes which could be economic, social, political or environmental. Military conquest of one region by the other was one of the most important causes of migration in earlier period of history. Migration, apart from affecting the migrating group or the individual, affects both the region of the origin as well as the region of migration.

INDIAN CONTEXT
India like most other countries has seen a lot of migration which has deeply influenced its culture and contributed to its diversity. Military conquest was the main cause as well the mode of migration in earlier days which brought Indo Aryans, Sakas, Arabs, Afghans, Turks and Turk-Mongols (Mughals) into India. Internally, movement of Marathas into Central India after conquering part of the area is an example of this kind of migration. Others causes of migration included natural calamities like famine, trade & employment, religious missionaries and desire of the rulers to bring some an individual or group of individuals mainly artists and scholars.
In the present day, migration through conquest or due to natural calamities is no longer practiced. However, changed socio-economic conditions have led to continuous migration from one region, which has also been facilitated by improvements in modes of transport and communication. Some of the important reasons for migration are as under:
1. In the present day context, economic reasons are most important cause of migration both within the country as well as outside the country. More developed areas attract people as these provide better employment opportunities. However, this kind of migration is controlled by ‘pull’ and ‘push’ factors.
In cases, where the difference in opportunities is less, ‘pull’ factor comes into play and the person weighs the benefits of economic developments with the problems he would face in migration. Due to this migration is comparatively less in numbers and involves a higher percentage of skilled workers. Migration of people to Mumbai for working in film industry or to Bangalore for working in IT industry is an example of this kind of migration.
Migration due to ‘pull’ factors also comes into play in case of migration outside India. Professionals and skilled workers as well as those unskilled workers, who can afford travel expenses and legal formalities, move to other countries for better opportunities.
However, in areas where development is minimal, ‘push’ factor becomes more important. Here, people do not have much option in their region and are forced to migrate due to these compelling situations. In such cases, the migration is higher and has a higher percentage of unskilled workers. Migration of unskilled or semiskilled labour from Bihar and eastern U.P. to Mumbai and Punjab are examples of this kind of migration.
Urbanization has resulted in development of towns and cities which have emerged as centers of trade and commerce and have higher prospects of employment. Apart from this, these centers also have better infrastructure and facilities. This has led to large scale migration to these centers due to both ‘push’ and ‘pull’ factors.
Rural to urban migration has also been forced by situations prevailing in rural areas. Larger families and continuous division of agricultural land has reduced the size of agricultural land holdings, average land holding size in the country being reduced to about 1.3 hectares. In some of the states like Uttar Pradesh the size is below one hectare. This has increased pressure on land and agriculture is no longer able to support a large or even an average family. This has forced the people to migrate to urban areas.
2. Social causes are also an important cause of migration among which marriage is the biggest cause of migration. However, as most of this movement is within the same region and same social background, it does not have much impact on the socio-economic conditions.
3.Casteism is another important factor. In our society, caste system is not only an alignment of social groups; it is also linked with economic and social power. Those at the lower end are discriminated and are more inclined to migrate to urban areas where the caste system is virtually non existent in public life giving them the opportunity to participate in the society on more equal basis.
4.Migration is also caused by conditions like insurgency and riots. Wherever such conditions arise, people tend to migrate to safer areas. As per Internal Displacement Monitoring Committee working under Norwegian Refugee Council, India has more than 5 lakh such internally displaced people. Migrants from Jammu & Kashmir form the bulk of these migrants, while others are from the North Eastern states, Gujarat and Orissa.
5.Migration can also be caused by conditions outside the country. India is also home to a number of refugees from other countries. As per data compiled by United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) they numbered about 2 lakhs in 2011. Majority of them are from Tibet, Sri Lanka and Afghanistan. Apart from this, illegal migrants from the neighboring Bangladesh enter the country in large numbers and are a cause of concern.

IMPACT OF MIGRATION
Migration affects all concerned, the individual, region from where he is migrating and the region to which he is migrating. The effects like causes are again social, political and economical. Some of the effects are as under:
When a person migrates due to ‘push’ factor, his region is relieved of the responsibility of providing employment to one person. Although, the family faces some problems due to non availability of one working member, these are compensated by better earnings he sends home. Apart from benefitting the family, this also benefits their region as earnings are spent there.
However, when a person migrates due to ‘pull’ factor, his region loses one person who is in demand in his own area. This negatively affects the human resources of the area. As most of these people are skilled and qualified, the loss is substantial in terms of human resources, though this is partly set off by the remittances received, particularly those received from overseas. Incidentally, remittances sent to India account for 3% of India’s GDP and form a substantial share of the net domestic products of Kerala, Punjab and Tamil Nadu.
In the migrating region the immigrant competes with the locals for jobs and wherever the jobs are scarce, the competition brings in resentment, resulting in social tensions.
In urban areas, where the migration is more and uncontrolled, this brings pressure on land and infrastructure. One of the unpleasant aspects of this kind of migration is the growth of slums.
In areas where the number of migrants is higher, political aspect comes into play as these people could be potential source or threat to the political domination of a political party. This has resulted in the issue being politicized. A recent example of this is Mumbai, where some politicians blame north Indian migrants for almost every problem of the city, though the majority of migrants in the city are from Maharashtra itself. A more unpleasant example is from tribal areas where the immigrants are seen as a threat to their traditional culture as well as political dominance. Such situations have sometimes acquired militant overtones which are not in the best interests of the country.
Migration also brings changes in the behavior and attitude of the migrant. This is more prominently observed in the migrants from rural to urban areas. While on hand he is apprehensive in the new place he also comes into contact with new values and norms like delayed marriage, smaller family and importance of education. Gradually these ideas percolate to his native place which is beneficial to the society.
Problems of internally displaced persons are more complex as migration has been due to the violent behavior of another section of the society. Apart from economic problems, the problems are also psychological. They are not able to come to terms with the reality and the inability of the state to protect them in their homes. On the other hand, refugees from other countries like Tibet face to twin problems of economic survival in an alien land as well as preserve their national identity.

CONCLUSION
Migration is an important social phenomenon and has played an important role in shaping our culture and heritage. It is neither feasible nor desirable to stop migration. However, it is also true that migration forced upon people has brought innumerable miseries to them. Therefore, an ideal situation would be creating conditions where no one is forced to migrate for any reason whatsoever. This condition can be achieved by removing disparities in economic development and by removing social discriminations. As regards tensions between the locals and the migrants, it must also be understood that while giving a job or getting a job is a personal matter, every human being is entitled to a life of respect and dignity in any corner of the world and unless he has done something against the law of the land, he needs to be given that respect and dignity.


By DAVENDRA SHARMA

“Plasma”, “LCD” and “LED”

Explain and differentiate among “Plasma”, “LCD” and “LED” television technologies.  (Civil Services Exam- 2010, 150 words)

Answer:
Plasma TV contains a sheet of individual Plasma cell which gets activated due to electric current. The fundamental principle behind Plasma TV is the release of ultra violet photon when the excited electron returns to the normal state.

The LCD TV has liquid crystal which gets activated with the current. Since the panel has no light of its own, an external source is required for the lightening.

The principle of LED is similar to that of LCD which also has liquid crystal, the difference is that the lightening source in the case of former is light emitting diode.

On price front Plasma is the most economical technology while LED is the costliest. The performance of Plasma is better than LED and LCD in terms of motion and the image of Plasma TV remain good at almost all angles. On the other hand the lifespan of LED and LCD TVs are greater than that compared to Plasma technology.

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Achievements of NRHM

Some of the key achievements under National Rural Health Mission are:

1. Accelerated improvements in key reproductive health indicators e.g. Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR), Infant Mortality Rate (IMR), Total Fertility Rate (TFR) and Institutional Delivery Rate.

2. Upgradation and operationalization of 8250 Primary Health Centers (PHCs) as 24X7 facilities

3. Operationalization of 2312 FRUs which includes Community Health Centers (CHCs), Sub District Hospitals and District Hospitals for providing OPD and 24*7 indoor facilities especially for comprehensive emergency obstetric and newborn care.

4. 374 Special Newborn Care Units, 1638 Newborn Stabilization Units, and 11432 Newborn Care Corners have been established at different levels of health facilities.

5. Augmentation of the availability of skilled manpower by means of different skill- based trainings such as Skilled Birth Attendance for Auxiliary Nurse Midwives/Staff Nurses/Lady Health Visitors; training of MBBS Doctors in Life Saving Anaesthetic Skills and Emergency Obstetric Care including Caesarean Section.

6. Over 1.4 lakh Human Resources have been engaged across the country on contractual basis under National Rural Health Mission which includes- ANMs, Staff Nurses, Paramedics, AYUSH Doctors, Doctors, Specialists and AYUSH Paramedics.

7. Engagement of 8.61 lakhs Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHAs) to generate demand and facilitate accessing of health care services by the community.

As per the Health Management Information System (HMIS) under the National Rural Health Mission, total institutional deliveries at public and private accredited health facilities increased from 1.62 Crores in the year 2009-10 to 1.68 Crores in the year 2010-11.

The key strategies adopted by the Government of India to strengthen NRHM are:

• Creation of strong institutional mechanisms at National and State level through Mission Steering group, State/District Health Mission.

• Strengthening Programme Management units for effective public health management through State, District and Block Programme management units.

• Enhanced fund allocation to NRHM for additional funding to States.

• Preparation of inter-sectoral District Health Plans.

• Integrating vertical Health and Family Welfare programmes at National, State, District and Block levels.

• Supporting States through united funds for the functioning of Village Health Sanitation & Nutrition Committees and thereby focusing on creation of Village Health Plans.

• Promoting access to healthcare at household level through ASHA.

• Supporting the States to train and enhance capacity of Panchayati Raj Institutions.

• Strengthening facilities from PHCs and above through grants to RogiKalyanSamitis (RKS).

• Promotion of Public Private Partnership through NRHM to improve service delivery. 

Alzheimer’s disease

What is Alzheimer’s disease?

* September 21 is World Alzheimer's Day.
* The day is observed to spread awareness about Alzheimer's disease across the globe. 

What is Alzheimer’s disease? 

* Alzheimer’s disease is most common form of dementia (loss of memory).
* The disease, caused by the degeneration of brain cells and nerves, impacts functioning of the brain, affecting day- to-day activities in its victims.
* The disease is generally diagnosed in the people over 65-year age.
* The main symptoms include difficulty in remembering recent events which gradually develops into advance symptoms like confusion, irritability and aggression, mood swings,trouble with language, and long-term memory loss.
* There is no cure for the disease, which worsens as it progresses, and eventually leads to death.
 * About a fourth of the world's Alzheimer's patients live in India

What is Youth Unite for Voter Awareness (YUVA) ?

* The Election Commission of India unveiled an initiative to identify the missing and non-voters to encourage them for voting.

*The Commission has designed a YUVA strategy which abbreviates “Youth Unite for Voter Awareness” (YUVA) to encourage increased participation of young women and men in the electoral process.

The Commission is making efforts to include homeless people, nomads, transgenders, NRIs among others in the electoral process.

The body also aims to build greater support and chorus of views in favor of participatory democracy and promote and sustain it through election literacy and enlightened voter participation.

* It was noted by the EC that nearly 281 million voters in the country did not exercise their participated in voting during the last Lok Sabha elections in 2009.

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Explaination of Monetory Policy

3 Basic objectives of Monetary Policy :

1] Controlling Inflation

2] Encouraging Growth

3] Financial Stability

All of This is so complicated........

Member 1: Why cant we have just Enough Money Around for Everyone and all would be fine.

Money Kumar : So you think if there is enough money around, it would be just fine?

Lets go to the Trip along with ISD....

In The Trip.........

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What is Cloud Computing ? What are its advantage and disadvantages ?

‎(Civil Services Exam-2010, 150 Words)

Question:

What is Cloud Computing? What are its advantage and disadvantages? 

Answer:

Cloud computing is a model for enabling convenient, on-demand network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications, and
services) that can be rapidly rented and released with minimal management effort or service provider interaction.

This cloud model promotes availability and is composed of five essential characteristics
1. On-demand self-service
2. Broad network access
3. Resource pooling
4. Rapid elasticity
5. Measured Service

Advantages:
1. It reduce the cost of infrastructure to a great extent
2. It tackles the issue of scaling as per the demand
3. The cost has to be incurred on the basis of actual usage.
4. It is highly automated

Disadvantage:
1. The security is the big issue in case of resource pooling
2. The model requires the net connectivity
3. Infrastructure is also a big challenge.

However if we analyze the advantages and disadvantage it could be inferred that in spite of a few disadvantages the model has huge potential for the future.

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Cash Reserve Ration (CRR) and Open Market Operation (OMO)

CRR:

*Cash Reserve Ratio which is abbreviated as CRR is that minimum part of deposits that a commercial bank has to keep with the central bank. It is used by the central bank in monetary policy. Before 1991 financial reforms, CRR and SLR (Statutory Liquidity Ratio) was also a major instrument to source of funding and control over credit and interest rates. But after the reforms, the use of CRR as an effective instrument was de-emphasized and the use of Open Market Operations came to the fore. OMO’s are more effective in adjusting market liquidity.

* What is Open Market Operation (OMO)?

OMO is an activity by a central bank to buy or sell government bonds on the open market. A central bank uses them as the primary means of implementing monetary policy. The central aim of OMO is to control the short term interest rate and the supply of base money in an economy, and thus indirectly control the total money supply.
This involves meeting the demand of base money at the target interest rate by buying and selling government securities, or other financial instruments. Monetary targets, such as inflation, interest rates, or exchange rates, are used to guide this implementation.

Types of OMO are used by RBI:
1. Outright purchase (PEMO): Is outright buying or selling of government securities. (Permanent)
2. Repurchase agreement (REPO): Is short term, and are subject to repurchase.

As per the prescription by PMEAC:
If government is not able to capitalize public sector banks timely under Basel-III norms, their market share will decline.The govt has to make additional budgetary support in order to meet about 50% of additional capital requirement Low base effect in the second half of last year will help gross domestic product to show higher growth by end of this financial year.Growth rate will regain pace, it probably will touch 8% in next 2 years.

The Prime Minister’s Economic Advisory Council Chairman, C Rangarajan, hasopined to reduce the use of CRR and suggested that it should be used only in extraordinary circumstances. As per him, the need for using it reduces with the option of Open Market Operations (OMOs) already in place.

NUCLEAR POWER GROWTH IN INDIA

India, being a non-signatory of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, has been subjected to a de facto nuclear embargo from members of the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) cartel. This has prevented India from obtaining commercial nuclear fuel, nuclear power plant components and services from the international market, thereby forcing India to develop its own fuel, components and services for nuclear power generation. The NSG embargo has had both negative and positive consequences for India's Nuclear Industry.

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India declares drought: How will it affect country economy

During recent times, India is passing through one of its worst economic crisis having to deal with problems like, low growth, high inflation, high fiscal deficit and the highest ever trade account deficit. In fact, Standard and Poor rating 2011-12 has downgraded the rating for Indian economy from "Stable" to "Negative" In such a situation, occurrence of a drought will mean dooms day for Indian Economy and will push India further into a quagmire.

During the last decade India has already faced three droughts and the government has again on 2nd August , 2012, officially declared another drought like situation in many parts of the country. Monsoon rainfall is 14 percent below average in India, which depends on rainwater to feed more than 50 percent of its agricultural land. Some of the worst affected states are Karnataka, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra. However, the driest region is the northwest, which, according to India's Meteorological Department, had received only 80 percent of its long-term average rainfall as of on August 23. This region envelopes some of the most productive agricultural states in the country, including Punjab, which produced 27.2 million metric tons of food grains in 2010-11. Other major producers in India's northwestern region include Rajasthan and Haryana, as well as the more north-central Uttar Pradesh.

Drought can be defined as an extended period of months or years in a region with little or no precipitation. A drought affects all aspects of our society, be it economic, political or social. For the time being, we limit our focus on its economic repercussions. The direct impact of a drought on Indian economy is in the area of agriculture. Though the contribution of agriculture in the GDP has dropped down to 13.9%, it continues to employ a large part of the rural population and provides livelihood to them. A weak monsoon and hence a crop failure will deal a blow to hundreds of millions of desperately poor agricultural labourers, small farmers and their families. Such dire situations will force the farmer to borrow loans from exploitive moneylenders which would then trap them into a vicious cycle of debt and poverty. School drop-outs, malnutrition and in the worst conditions suicide would define the conditions of these agricultural families during drought. We have already read about the suicides of farmers in the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra during the drought of 2009.

Rain water is extremely essential for agriculture as even today Indian agriculture primarily depends upon it for irrigation facilities. Drought affects the Kharif crops and has negative implications for India's rice yield and hits the economy of our country known to have paddy-culture. For the country's food security too droughts are threatening particularly at a time when the country's population is increasing rapidly. Occurrence of a drought will adversely affect the agricultural production by lowering the produce. This in turn would lead to high food insecurity in the nation. At the national level this food shortage and insecurity would lead to high inflation with extreme hike in prices of food grains making survival difficult for the poor. In such a grave situation, the Government may be forced to import food from other countries compromising on our trade balances. The adverse impact of food shortage leading to food import from other country at terms dictated by them are all known to us. Prior to Green Revolution India had to import wheat from USA at terms dictated by the US government.

In addition there will not be surplus of agricultural products like, Basmati rice for export to overseas country. This will further aggravate the trade deficit for our nation. A loss of crop also results in lower GDP.

It is not only the agriculture sector which will face adversities but also all other related sectors. For example, the agro-based industries will suffer a drop in the production level and incur huge losses due to shortage of agricultural raw materials, people involved in the backward and forward linkages with the farming sector like, people and organizations dealing in fertilizers, pesticides, transportation and entire supply chain for the food articles will also have low levels of activities and thus will be adversely affected.

Moving on from agriculture, drinking water problems would constitute one of the basic problems faced by one and all. The occupation of animal husbandry would be hard hit due to degradation of green pasture lands and loss of fodder. Further, India receives a lot of its economic resources from forests and drought reduces this forest cover. Lack of rainfall also increases the chances of forest fires leading to loss of trees and the resources.

Hence, it is clear that drought crushes our nation and it is important to control it. Apart from and more important than the government's initiative is our own initiative. We must ourselves try and conserve water in the form of water harvesting and saving. Only then will we be able to save our economy from the economic harm this devil inflicts on us.

भारताची शैक्षणिक पडझड

लोकसत्ता । शुक्रवार, १४ सप्टेंबर २०१२

उत्तम शैक्षणिक कामगिरी करणाऱ्या, जगातील पहिल्या शंभर विद्यापीठांमध्ये भारतातील एकही विद्यापीठ नसावे, ही नुसती काळजी करण्यासारखी बाब नसून, आपल्या शैक्षणिक धोरणांचे अपयश दाखवणारी गोष्ट आहे, हे ध्यानात घ्यायला हवे. याच वर्षांच्या जुलै महिन्यात आशियातील पहिल्या दोनशे विद्यापीठांच्या यादीतही एकही भारतीय विद्यापीठ नव्हते. भारतातील उच्च शिक्षणाची सर्वार्थाने जबाबदारी असलेल्या विद्यापीठ अनुदान मंडळाच्या क्रमवारीत जी पहिली दहा विद्यापीठे आहेत, त्यातील एकालाही आशियातील दोनशे विद्यापीठांतही आपले स्थान निश्चित करता आले नाही.

‘क्यू एस’ या संस्थेने केलेल्या जागतिक पाहणीत यंदा प्रथमच अमेरिकेतील एमआयटी या विद्यापीठाला पहिला क्रमांक प्राप्त झाला आहे. इतकी वर्षे हा मान मिळवणारे ब्रिटनमधील केम्ब्रिज विद्यापीठ आता दुसऱ्या क्रमांकावर गेले आहे. पहिल्या शंभर विद्यापीठांमध्ये अमेरिकेतील ३०, ब्रिटनमधील १८, ऑस्ट्रेलियातील सात आणि जपानमधील सहा विद्यापीठांचा समावेश आहे. कॅनडा, स्वित्र्झलड, हाँगकाँग, सिंगापूर, फ्रान्स, दक्षिण कोरिया, चीन, डेन्मार्क, जर्मनी, नेदरलँडस्, आर्यलड, स्वीडन, फिनलंड, तैवान, बेल्जियम, न्यूझीलंड या देशांमधील विद्यापीठांना या यादीत स्थान मिळाले आहे. भारताला त्यांच्या जवळपासही जाता आलेले नाही, याचे दु:ख करण्यापेक्षा आपले कोठे चुकते आहे, याचे आत्मपरीक्षण मानव संसाधन मंत्र्यांनी करणे अधिक आवश्यक आहे. एमआयटी या संस्थेमध्ये ७७ नोबेल विजेते अध्यापक आहेत. जगातील पहिल्या दहा श्रेष्ठ अभ्यासकांमध्ये सतत झळकणारे नोएम चॉम्स्की याच संस्थेत आहेत. मूलभूत स्वरूपाचे संशोधन आणि त्यासाठी आवश्यक असणारे औद्योगिक, आर्थिक आणि सामाजिक वातावरण असल्याशिवाय शिक्षणाच्या क्षेत्रात भरीव कामगिरी करणे शक्य होणार नाही, याची जाणीव विकसित देशांना पूर्वीच झाल्यामुळे तेथे त्याबाबत विशेष प्रयत्न करण्यात आले. भारताला शिक्षणातील प्रगतीचे जे महत्त्व कळले आहे, ते केवळ आर्थिक स्वरूपाचे आहे. त्याचा देशाच्या आणि जगाच्या विकासाला आणि औद्योगिक प्रगतीला काही फायदा व्हायला हवा, याबाबत फारसे चिंतन करण्याची पद्धत नसल्यामुळे अभ्यासक्रमांमधील बदलही फार सावकाश गतीने होतो. जगाचा वेग भारतातील शिक्षणपद्धतीला पकडता येत नाही. परिणामी परदेशात शिक्षणासाठी गेलेल्या बहुतेक भारतीयांनी तेथेच कायमस्वरूपी राहणे पसंत केले आहे. परदेशातील विद्यापीठांची प्रदीर्घ परंपरा कालानुरूप टिकवून ठेवण्यासाठी जे विशेष प्रयत्न केले जातात, तसे भारतात होत नाहीत आणि त्यामुळे वर्षांनुवर्षे त्याच त्या प्रकारचे शिक्षण देण्याची जुनी परंपराच कायम राहते, असे शिक्षणतज्ज्ञांना वाटते. त्याचे एक कारण असेही आहे की, भारतात शिक्षणातील राजकीय ढवळाढवळ दिवसेंदिवस वाढते आहे. काय शिकवायचे, कसे शिकवायचे आणि कुणी शिकवायचे याचा निर्णय राजकीय पातळीवर होत राहिला, तर त्याचा दर्जावर परिणाम होणे स्वाभाविक असते. सरकारला शिक्षणाचे क्षेत्र पूर्णत: स्वायत्त करण्याची इच्छा नाही, असाच याचा अर्थ होतो. जगातील सुमारे सत्तर हजार विद्वान आणि विद्यापीठीय कर्मचाऱ्यांनी व्यक्त केलेल्या मतांवर आधारित क्यू एस या संस्थेने विद्यापीठांची जागतिक क्रमवारी प्रसिद्ध केली आहे. याचा अर्थ एकच होतो की, भारताने आपले शैक्षणिक धोरण लवचिक करून त्यात बदलांना वाव ठेवला पाहिजे. 

विजेचे सोंग कसे आणणार?

लोकसत्ता । सुभाष काळे | शुक्रवार, १४ सप्टेंबर २०१२

कोळसा घोटाळा गाजतो आहे, अणुप्रकल्पांना होणारा विरोधही गाजतोच आहे.. पण वीजनिर्मिती आणि वितरण यांच्यापुढे असलेली गंभीर आव्हाने लोकांच्या चर्चेत फारशी नसतात. देशाला आजही निम्म्याहून अधिक वीज कोळशाद्वारेच मिळत असताना, कोळशाच्या उपलब्धतेकडेही दुर्लक्ष आणि पर्यायी स्रोतांकडेही लक्ष नाही, अशी स्थिती अंधारात लोटणारी ठरू शकते..
विजेची मागणी आणि पुरवठा यांतील तफावत चक्रवाढ गतीने वाढत आहे. उन्हाळय़ाच्या काळात सर्वाधिक मागणी असतानाच्या काळात भारतातील एकंदर विजेची मागणी १२ ते १५ टक्के इतकी वाढलेली असतेच,
पण २०१२ ते २०१७ या काळात ही मागणी तब्बल ५५ टक्क्यांनी वाढून १४०० अब्ज किलोवॅट प्रति तास इतकी होणार असल्याचा अंदाज नियोजन आयोगानेच प्रसृत केला आहे. विजेची मागणी आणि पुरवठा यांतील तफावतीमुळेच ग्रिडमधून वीज खेचण्याचे प्रकार काही राज्यांनी केले आणि जुलैच्या अखेरीस भारतातील २२ राज्यांना अंधारात जावे लागले. राजधानी दिल्लीही यातून सुटली नाही. ग्रामीण भारत अंधारातच असताना, शहरी ‘इंडिया’तदेखील या ग्रिड-संकटाने, पुढील काळातील धोक्यांची पूर्वसूचना दिली. भारत आणि ‘इंडिया’ विजेसाठी किती भुकेले आहेत आणि ही भूक भागली नाही तर काय होते, याचा पुरावा आपल्याला दीड महिन्यापूर्वी मिळाला.
विजेच्या मागणीपेक्षा विजेचा तुटवडा, गेल्या पाच वर्षांत वीजनिर्मितीच्या क्षमतेत सात ते नऊ टक्के वाढ होऊनही कायम आहे. देशाची ऊर्जेची गरज तीन ते साडेतीन टक्क्यांनी वाढत असून विजेची (ग्राहकांकडून) मागणी आठ टक्क्यांनी दरवर्षी वाढते, अशी आकडेवारी सेंट्रल इलेक्ट्रिसिटी ऑथॉरिटीच्या वार्षिक अहवालात आहे. या आकडेवारीच्या पलीकडे पाहिल्यास, आजही भारतातील ४३ टक्के ग्रामीण घरे- एक लाख गावे आणि ४० कोटी माणसे विजेपासून वंचित आहेत. त्यांची गरज भागवण्याचे उद्दिष्ट राज्यकर्त्यांना ठेवावे लागेलच, शिवाय ‘भारत’ आणि ‘इंडिया’मधील दरी बुजवायची, तर वीजनिर्मिती आणखी वाढवावी लागेल.
वीजनिर्मितीची उद्दिष्टे देशात कधी पूर्ण होऊ शकली नाहीत. अकराव्या पंचवार्षिक योजनेने ७८ हजार मेगावॅट वीजनिर्मितीचे उद्दिष्ट ठेवले आणि ५२ हजार मेगावॅट वीज प्रत्यक्ष निर्माण झाली. बाराव्या पंचवार्षिक योजनेचे उद्दिष्ट तर एक लाख मेगावॅटचे आहे!
ग्राहकांना आणि औद्योगिक वापरकर्त्यांना पुरेशी वीज का मिळत नाही, याची दोन प्रमुख कारणे देण्यात येतात. त्यांपैकी एक असते वीजनिर्मितीचे आणि दुसरे ‘पारेषण-हानी’ किंवा वीजवहनाच्या वेळी होणाऱ्या गळतीचे. यापैकी गळतीकडे नंतर पाहू, प्रथम वीजनिर्मिती कमी का पडते, याचा विचार करू.

अर्धी लढाई कोळशाचीच

कोळसा व खनिज इंधनांपासूनची वीजनिर्मिती ६६.५४ टक्के, जलविद्युत २१ टक्के, अपारंपरिक ऊर्जा स्रोतांवर आधारित वीजनिर्मिती १२.१० टक्के आणि अणु-वीजनिर्मिती २.३१ टक्के, असे वीजनिर्मितीच्या स्रोतांचे प्रमाण आहे. देशात २,०६,४५६.०४ मेगावॅट वीज निर्माण होते, त्यापैकी १,३७,३८६.१८ मेगावॅट ही औष्णिक वीज आहे आणि या एकंदर औष्णिक वीजनिर्मितीपैकी कोळशापासून बनणाऱ्या विजेचा वाटा हा १,१७,२८३.३८ मेगावॅट आहे. म्हणजेच, देशातील एकूण वीजनिर्मितीपैकी अध्र्याहून अधिक वाटा एकटय़ा कोळशाचाच आहे.
यापैकी कोळशाच्या पुरवठय़ात नजीकच्या काळात काही सुधारणा होईल, अशी आशा (कोळसा घोटाळय़ानंतर व खाण-कंत्राटे गोठल्यानंतर तर अजिबातच) नाही. कोळसा उत्खननात एक हजार कोटी रुपयांची गुंतवणूक असली, तरीही प्रत्यक्ष उत्खनन सुरू झालेले नाही. सरकारी आकडेवारीनुसार १९४ कोळसा ‘ब्लॉक’ (खाणींचे भाग) हे उत्पादनासाठी तयार आहेत, त्यांपैकी २८ ब्लॉकमधूनच प्रत्यक्ष उत्पादन होत आहे. बाकीच्या ब्लॉकना वनखाते, पर्यावरण खाते व अन्य विभागांच्या मंजुऱ्या न मिळाल्याने तेथे उत्पादन सुरू होऊ शकत नाही.
कोळशाचे उत्पादन वाढावे म्हणून सार्वजनिक व खासगी क्षेत्रांतील प्रवर्तकांना लिलाव पद्धतीने उत्खननास संमती देण्यासाठी संबंधित विधेयक संसदेपुढे सात वर्षे राजकीय सहमतीसाठी प्रलंबित आहे. तशातच, देशातील खासगी क्षेत्रांतील कंपन्यांकडे २४ हजार मेगावॅट वीज कोळशापासून निर्माण करण्याची स्थापित क्षमता असली, तरी त्यांनी कोळशाच्या दराचा मुद्दा सरकारकडे उपस्थित केला आहे आणि त्याबाबत विवाद आहे. कोल इंडिया या सार्वजनिक क्षेत्रातील अग्रेसर कंपनीने ६० टक्के कोळसा पुरवण्याचे फ्युएल सप्लाय अ‍ॅग्रीमेंट केले; परंतु त्याची पूर्तता करण्यास असमर्थता दाखवली आणि या प्रकरणी पंतप्रधान कार्यालयाला मध्यस्थीची विनंती केली. अखेर पंतप्रधानांनी पर्यावरण खात्याचा विरोध मोडून, कोल इंडियाला १२ प्रकल्पांसाठी संमती दिली आणि १० दशलक्ष टन कोळसा उत्पादनाचा मार्ग मोकळा केला. मात्र, अशा आणखी १६८ कोळसा खाणींचे प्रस्ताव या ना त्या कारणाने अडले आहेत. आंतरराष्ट्रीय बाजारातून कोळसा आयात करण्यासाठी जी पूर्वतयारी करावी लागते, ती सरकारने पूर्ण केलेली नाही. इंडोनेशियामधून आयात केलेला कोळसा तेथील निर्यात कर वाढल्यामुळे तो महाग झाला आहे.
अशा स्थितीत, ऊर्जा मंडळाच्या अहवालानुसार देशात २०१६-१७ या आर्थिक वर्षांपर्यंत कोळशाची मागणी आणि प्रत्यक्ष पुरवठा यांमध्ये २०० दशलक्ष टनांची तफावत येणार आहे. कोळशावरच देशातील ५० टक्केपेक्षा अधिक विजेची निर्मिती होत असल्याने, तुटीचा हा निर्देश म्हणजे गंभीर इशारा आहे. वीजनिर्मितीच्या सर्व उपलब्ध स्रोतांचे अवलोकन केल्यास, कोळशावरील अवलंबित्व येत्या पाच वर्षांत संपणारे नाही, हेच दिसेल. त्यामुळे पर्यावरण विरुद्ध कोळसा या संघर्षांतून मार्ग काढणे जरुरीचे आहे.

पर्याय आणि पर्यावरणीय प्रश्न

पर्यावरणीय प्रश्न अन्य दोन स्रोतांबाबतही उभे राहतात. जलविद्युत प्रकल्पांसाठी पाण्याखाली जाणारी जमीन ही बाब संवेदनशील झालेली आहे. जुन्या जलविद्युत केंद्रांची क्षमता कमी झालेली असल्याने त्यांची क्षमतावाढ करणे गरजेचे आहे. अशा वेळी भारताने विजेची गरज भागवण्यासाठी भूतान, बांगलादेश आणि नेपाळ येथे उत्पादन होणारी जलविद्युत मिळवण्याचे प्रयत्न सुरू केले आहेत. कोळशाला पर्यायी, पण मूलत: औष्णिक वीजनिर्मितीचा स्रोत म्हणजे नैसर्गिक वायू. मात्र, या स्रोतातून सध्या उपलब्ध होणारी वीज कमी आहे आणि वायुसाठे सापडत असले तरी ते वीजनिर्मितीच्याच कामी येतील याची शाश्वती नाही.
अणु-वीजनिर्मितीचा बहुचर्चित पर्याय, हा या संदर्भात नियोजनकर्त्यांना अधिक आकर्षक वाटल्यास नवल नाही. मात्र, हा पर्याय अर्थातच वादग्रस्त आहे. सामाजिक विरोध, जमिनीच्या अधिग्रहणाचे आणि पुनर्वसन तसेच भरपाईचे प्रश्न, अणुइंधनाच्या पुरवठय़ातील किंवा तंत्रज्ञान मिळण्यातील अडथळे आणि अणु-वीजनिर्मितीचा खर्च व सुरक्षिततेचे प्रश्न, या जंजाळात अणु-वीजनिर्मितीचा पर्याय अडकलेला आहे. सौर ऊर्जा आणि पवन ऊर्जा हे दोन अन्य पर्याय पर्यावरणनिष्ठ मानले जातात; परंतु यातील पवन ऊर्जेवर अनेकदा टीकेची झोड उठत असते.
वीज तयार झाली तरी तिचे वहन आणि वितरणाचे जाळे चोख नाही, ही देशापुढील आणखी एक मोठी अडचण आहे. वीजगळतीचे प्रमाण रोखणे, ही महाराष्ट्र राज्य वीज पारेषण मंडळासह सर्वच राज्यांतील मंडळांपुढची समस्या आहे. या वीज मंडळांच्या आर्थिक अवस्थेबाबत ‘क्रिसिल’ या रेटिंग संस्थेने केलेल्या सर्वेक्षणातही हीच बाब उघड झाली. सर्व राज्यांतील वीज मंडळांचा एकंदर आर्थिक तोटा (मार्च २०१२ पर्यंत) १ लाख ८० हजार कोटी रुपयांचा असल्याचे क्रिसिलच्या अहवालात नमूद आहे. ही वीज मंडळे सरकारच्या पाठिंब्यावर, सरकारी हमीद्वारे बँकेकडून कर्जाची उचल करीत असतात, त्या कर्जाची रक्कमही आता ३ लाख कोटी रुपयांवर पोहोचली आहे! त्यातच, विजेचे दर कमी ठेवण्यासाठी सरकारने घेतलेल्या निर्णयांनंतरही वसुलीचे प्रमाण कमी आहे. वीज मंडळांना ग्रासणाऱ्या इंधनविषयक आणि आर्थिक समस्यांचा परिणाम लोकांना वीज न मिळण्यात होतो. या समस्यांमुळे जवळपास २० हजार मेगावॅट विजेची क्षमता वापरली जात नाही.
वीजनिर्मिती आणि वितरण यांबद्दल नवे धोरण स्वीकारायचे असेल तर कोळशापासून आण्विक वीज प्रकल्पांपर्यंत सर्वच प्रकारच्या प्रकल्पांच्या निरनिराळय़ा समस्यांकडे साकल्याने पाहावे लागेल. नव्या प्रकल्पांना होणारा विरोध कसा हाताळावा, याची नीती ठरवतानाच, कोळशासारख्या इंधनाच्या समस्येचे काय करायचे, हेही ठरवावे लागेल. समित्या अनेक नेमल्या गेल्या, शिफारशी अनेक झाल्या, पण र्सवकष आणि दीर्घकालीन धोरण नसल्याची किंमत लोकांना अंधारात राहून मोजावी लागणार आहे.
‘भारत’ अंधारात आहेच. वीजसंकट वाढल्यास ‘इंडिया’देखील अंधाराकडे वाटचाल करू लागेल. विजेचे सोंग आणता येत नाही. त्यासाठी धोरणे आखावी लागतात.

विरोधाची ऊर्जा येते कुठून?

भालचंद्र केरकर । लोकसत्ता । गुरुवार, १३ सप्टेंबर २०१२

प्रचंड अणुप्रकल्पाविरुद्ध स्थानिक लोक लढतात. त्यांना परदेशी पैसा मिळतो, असे आरोप झाले, तरी हे अशा लढय़ातील सातत्य टिकण्याचे कारण असते का? धोरण बदलण्याच्या आग्रहाला अभ्यासाची विज्ञाननिष्ठ साथही असते की नाही? कुडनकुलम आणि जैतापूरच्या लढय़ांसाठी अशी साथ शोधणारं टिपण..
देशाला ऊर्जेची नितांत गरज असताना जनता अणुऊर्जेला एवढा तीव्रतेने विरोध का करते आहे, हे समजून घेणे आवश्यक आहे. जैतापूर, कुडनकुलम, हरिपूर जिथे जिथे अणुऊर्जा प्रकल्प आणले जात आहेत, त्या त्या ठिकाणी तेथील जनताच नव्हे, केवळ विस्थापित व्हायला लागेल म्हणूनच नव्हे, तर चांगले जाणकार अधिकारी व्यक्ती, शास्त्रज्ञही अणुऊर्जेला विरोध करीत आहेत. उदाहरण द्यायचे झाले तर या विरोधकांमध्ये अनेक खास व्यक्तींची नावे आहेत. उदाहरणार्थ : भारत सरकारचे निवृत्त ऊर्जा सचिव  डॉ. ई. ए. एस. सर्मा, निवृत्त केंद्रीय कॅबिनेट सचिव टी. एस. आर. सुब्रह्मण्यम, माजी मुख्य निवडणूक आयुक्त एन. गोपालस्वामी,  पंतप्रधानांचे माजी सचिव के. आर. वेणुगोपाल, माजी नौदलप्रमुख अ‍ॅडमिरल लक्ष्मीनारायण रामदास, अणुऊर्जा नियामक मंडळाचे माजी अध्यक्ष ए. गोपालकृष्णन, .. अशी कैक अनेक नावे सांगता येतील.
किरणोत्सर्गापासून सर्वसामान्यांच्या आरोग्याला प्रचंड धोका आहे. ‘न्यूक्लीअर मॅडनेस’ या आपल्या पुस्तकात यासंबंधीच्या एक जगद्विख्यात तज्ज्ञ हेलन कालडिकॉट म्हणतात, ‘मी एक डॉक्टर म्हणून तुम्हाला सांगू इच्छिते, अणुऊर्जा तंत्रज्ञानामुळे आपल्या पृथ्वीवरील सर्व जीवनालाच मोठा धोका निर्माण झाला आहे. जर सध्याचे धोरण चालू राहिले तर आपण ज्या हवेमध्ये श्वासोच्छ्वास घेतो, आपण जे अन्न खातो, आपण जे पाणी पितो, ते सर्व अणुऊर्जेमुळे निर्माण होणाऱ्या किरणोत्सर्गामुळे इतके प्रदूषित होईल की, मानवजातीच्या आरोग्याचे आतापर्यंतच्या प्लेगने जेवढे नुकसान केले नसेल, त्यापेक्षा जास्त नुकसान या किरणोत्सर्गामुळे घडून येईल.’ किरणोत्सारामुळे कॅन्सर व पुढे रोगग्रस्त पिढय़ा निर्माण होण्याचे धोके तर आता चांगलेच माहीत झाले आहेत. पर्यावरण व मानवजात या दोघांनाही अणुऊर्जेमुळे अपरिमित धोका निर्माण झाला आहे, ही बाब आता शंकेच्या पलीकडे गेली आहे.
अणुऊर्जा कंपन्यांचे मालक, अधिकारी व त्यांचे समर्थन करणारे भाडोत्री तज्ज्ञ म्हणतात, अणुऊर्जा ही धोकारहित ऊर्जा आहे. एवढी जर त्यांना खात्री आहे, तर अशा धोक्यामुळे निर्माण होणारी जबाबदारी (लाएबिलिटी) मात्र घेण्यास या परदेशी कंपन्या का तयार नाहीत? या कंपन्या व त्यांची सरकारे अशी जबाबदारी जनतेवर ढकलायला का तयार झाली आहेत? भारत सरकारवर ही जबाबदारी झटकून टाकण्यासाठी त्यांचा एवढा आटापिटा का चालला आहे? अमेरिकेतील ‘थ्री माइल आयलंड’ तसेच भूतपूर्व सोव्हिएत रशियातील ‘चेर्नोबिल’ आणि गेल्या वर्षीचे जपानमधील फुकुशिमासारखे अपघात काय दर्शवितात?
दुर्दैवाने असे काही भारतात घडलेच तर तेथील जनतेच्या मदतीला जलदगतीने धावण्याची व्यवस्था सरकारजवळ आहे का? भोपाळ गॅसपीडितांची जी अवस्था याच सरकारने केली, त्यावरून आपत्ती व्यवस्थापनाबाबत आपला देश किती तयार आहे हे लोकांसमोर आहेच. (महाराष्ट्राच्या मंत्रालयाला लागलेल्या भयानक आगीमुळे आपले आपत्ती व्यवस्थापन किती ढिले आहे, याचा पुन्हा एकदा विदारक अनुभव आलाच होता.)
अगदी खाणीतून युरेनियम काढण्यापासून तो ऊर्जेसाठी अणूचा स्फोट होईतोच नव्हेत अणुप्रकल्प बाद झाल्यानंतरही हजारो वर्षे किरणोत्साराचे दुष्परिणाम होत राहतात. अणुऊर्जा प्रकल्पातून निघणारा घनकचरा कुठे व कसा ठेवायचा याचे समाधानकारक उत्तर जगभरात अजूनही मिळालेले नाही, हेही त्याचे समर्थक मान्य करायला तयार नाहीत.
सर्वात खर्चिक
युरोपीयन इकॉनॉमिक कमिशनच्या एका संशोधन गटाने असे सिद्ध करून दाखविले आहे की, १०० युनिट अणुऊर्जा निर्मिती करण्यासाठी किमान दोन तृतीयांश ऊर्जेचा, तर युरेनियमचा दर्जा खालचा असेल तर याहीपेक्षा ऊर्जा वापरावी लागते. यामध्ये युरेनियमच्या वाहतुकीसाठी लागणारी ऊर्जा धरलेली नाही. हे आता सप्रमाण सिद्ध झाले आहे. मग हा अव्यापारेषू व्यापारच म्हणायला हवा. यामुळे ऊर्जेच्या एकूण साठय़ात किती वाढ होणार आहे? त्यावर खर्च किती?
जगभरचा अणुऊर्जेचा अनुभव असे सिद्ध करत आहे की, अणुऊर्जा ही आर्थिकदृष्टय़ा परवडणारी नाही. त्यामुळे ज्या आंतरराष्ट्रीय बँकांनी प्रथम कर्ज द्यायची तयारी दाखविली होती त्यांनी त्यातून अंग काढून घेतले आहे. अगदी जागतिक बँकही अणुऊर्जा प्रकल्पाच्या या तोटय़ातील उद्योगाला कर्ज द्यावयाच्या विरोधात आहे.
मग हे जे अणुप्रकल्प येताहेत त्यासाठी प्रचंड अनुदाने देऊनच ते चालवावे लागताहेत. एरवी सर्वच प्रकारच्या अनुदानाच्या (सबसिडी)च्या विरोधात असलेले पंतप्रधान मनमोहन सिंग इथे मात्र प्रचंड सबसिडी द्यायला तयार होतात याचे इंगित काय आहे? अणुकरार करण्यासाठी त्यांनी जो आटापिटा केला ते पाहिल्यानंतर, यामागे बरेच पाणी मुरते आहे, असे कोणीही म्हणेल आणि तरीही एवढे अनुदान देऊनही कोणताही खासगी उद्योग या क्षेत्राकडे वळायला तयार नाही, कारण इथे नफा नाही. म्हणून हे प्रकल्प सरकारच्या अट्टहासापोटी सार्वजनिक क्षेत्रातच चालविले जात आहेत.
आपले पुढारी व डॉ. अनिल काकोडकरांसारखे शास्त्रज्ञ सतत सांगत असतात की, अणुऊर्जा ही स्वस्त आहे. याबाबतीत अनेक अभ्यास झाले आहेत, पण अलीकडील मसाच्युसेट्स इन्स्टिटय़ूट ऑफ टेक्नॉलॉजीने केलेला अभ्यास ‘फ्यूचर ऑफ न्यूक्लिअर पॉवर’ असे सांगतो की, नव्याने बांधल्या जाणाऱ्या अणुऊर्जेची किंमत ही औष्णिक विजेपेक्षा किमान ३० ते ३५ टक्के जास्त आहे. या खर्चात अपघात झाल्यास जिम्मेदारीसाठी दिली जाणारी अनुदाने, घनकचरा वाहून नेऊन मुरून ठेवण्याचा खर्च, प्रकल्पाचे आयुष्य संपल्यावर तो मोडीत काढण्याचा खर्च धरलेला नाही. तो धरला तर हा खर्च खूपच जास्त असेल. उदा. जैतापूर अणुऊर्जा प्रकल्पातून मिळणाऱ्या ऊर्जेचा खर्च हा प्रत्येक मेगावटमागे रु. २१ कोटी येईल, तर हाच खर्च कोळशातून निर्मित विजेचा रु. ५ कोटींएवढा आहे. तेव्हा अणुऊर्जा ही स्वस्त आहे, हे एक जाणूनबुजून पसरवले गेलेले मिथक आहे, हे उघड आहे.
अनेक देश आता अणुऊर्जा सोडून देऊन सौरऊर्जा, वायुऊर्जा, जैविक कचरा ऊर्जा आदी पर्यायी स्रोतांकडे वळले आहेत. जर्मनी या जगातल्या महत्त्वाच्या देशाने आपली अणुऊर्जा केंद्रे टप्प्याटप्प्याने बंद करण्याचा निर्णय घेतला आहे, तर जपान २०३० पर्यंत पूर्णत ‘अणुऊर्जामुक्त’ होणार आहे. स्वत: जगाला युरेनियम पुरविणारा ऑस्ट्रेलिया, न्यूझीलंड, स्वित्र्झलड, इटली हे देश एकामागून एक अणुऊर्जेला रामराम ठोकत आहेत. जर्मनी सौरऊर्जा क्षेत्रात सर्वात आघाडीवर आहे. हा अतिशय कमी सूर्यप्रकाश असलेला देश जर सौरऊर्जेवर एवढी भिस्त ठेवतो, मग जिथे सूर्य आग ओकतो त्या आपल्या देशात सौरऊर्जेचा पर्याय का नको? खुद्द अमेरिकेतही जनतेच्या दबावामुळे गेली तीन दशके अणुऊर्जा प्रकल्प स्थापन झालेले नाहीत, पण भारतासारख्या देशाच्या गळ्यात मात्र हे प्रकल्प मारण्यात हे राष्ट्र पुढे आहे. ज्या फ्रान्समधल्या ‘अरेव्हा’ कंपनीकडून जैतापूरचा अणुऊर्जा प्रकल्पाला लागणारी संयंत्रे येऊ घातली आहेत, तिथे नव्याने निवडून आलेल्या समाजवादी अध्यक्षांनी अणुऊर्जेबाबत ती कमीत कमी करत जगण्याची भूमिका फ्रेंच जनतेच्या दबावाखाली घेतली आहे.
एका इंग्रजी दैनिकाने २५ जून रोजी दिलेल्या तपशीलवार वृत्तानुसार सौरऊर्जा ही किंमत आता प्रत्येक युनिटमागे ७.४९ रु. एवढी खाली आली आहे. ही किंमत कोळशावर आधारित विजेशी स्पर्धा करणारी आहे, तर अणुऊर्जा ही युनिटमागे २७ रु. इतकी महाग आहे. इतके अर्थशास्त्र तिच्या विरोधात असूनही पंतप्रधान मनमोहन सिंग या ऊर्जेच्या मागे का? याचे उत्तर या अणुऊर्जेच्या लॉबीची प्रचंड आंतरराष्ट्रीय ताकद आहे यात शंका नाही. सर्व प्रगत जग अणुऊर्जेकडे पाठ फिरवत असताना, भारताचे पंतप्रधान मात्र त्यांच्या या जनता व देशविरोधी धोरणाला चिकटून राहू पाहत आहेत व ते धोरण बदला हीच जनआंदोलनाची भूमिका आहे.
जैतापूर प्रकल्प रद्द करा!
कुडनकुलमप्रमाणेच जैतापूर अणुऊर्जा प्रकल्प रद्द करा, ही तेथील जनतेची तीव्र लढय़ातून केलेली मागणी आहे. त्यासाठी पोलीस दडपशाहीत व कारवाईत त्यांचे तीन नागरिक बळी गेले आहेत. तरीही त्यांचा लढा चालूच आहे.
१. हा भाग भूकंपप्रवण आहे व त्यामुळे इथे त्सुनामीचा धोकाही नाकारता येत नाही.
२. पर्यावरणाच्या दृष्टीने संवेदनशील अशा पश्चिम घाट परिसराच्या टापूमध्ये हा प्रकल्प येऊ घातला आहे. भारत सरकारनेच नेमलेल्या डॉ. माधवराव गाडगीळ समितीचा अहवाल बोलका आहे.
३. या प्रकल्पामुळे अरबी समुद्रातून रोज पाच हजार कोटी लिटर पाणी आत घेऊन ते गरम करून पुन्हा समुद्रात सोडावे लागणार आहे. त्यामुळे प्रचंड मच्छीमारी उत्पादन देणारा हा भाग उजाड बनून हजारो कोळ्यांचे जीवन उद्ध्वस्त होणार आहे.
४.  समुद्रमार्गे, हवाईमार्गे वा खुष्कीच्या मार्गानेही या प्रकल्पावर दहशतवादी हल्ला होऊ शकतो.
५.जैतापूरचे कष्टकरी आपण विस्थापित होऊ व उद्ध्वस्त होऊ म्हणूनही साहजिकच चिंतित आहेत.
बंगळूरुच्या इन्स्टिटय़ूफ ऑफ अ‍ॅस्ट्रोफिजिक्स मधील प्राध्यापक व भूगर्भशास्त्रज्ञ  डॉ. विनोद गौर  यांनी कॉलरॅडो विद्यापीठातील भूगर्भशास्त्रज्ञ  रॉजर बिलहॅम यांच्यासह लिहिलेल्या अभ्यासप्रबंधात, जैतापूरमध्ये सहापेक्षा जास्त क्षमतेचा भूकंप होऊ शकतो, असे म्हटले आहे. तसेच सरकारने यासंबंधी प्रसिद्ध केलेल्या अभ्यासाबाबत त्यांनी अनेक प्रश्न व शंका उपस्थित केल्या आहेत. भारत सरकारने बिलहॅम यांना भारतात प्रवेश नाकारला, पण हे संशोधन दाबता येणार नाही. सर्वसामान्य जनता याबाबतीत जे प्रश्न उपस्थित करते आहे, त्यात काहीच चूक नाही, त्यांच्यावर देशद्रोहाचे खटले भरणे हे चूक आहे, असे राष्ट्रीय सल्लाागार समितीच्या सदस्य आणि माहिती अधिकाराच्या प्रणेत्या अरुणा रॉय यांनी सोनिया गांधी यांना लिहिलेल्या पत्रातही नमूद आहे.
अशा अभ्यासू, विज्ञाननिष्ठ आणि समाजहितैषी भूमिकेतून आज कुडनकुलमच्या- किंवा जैतापूरच्याही- अणुप्रकल्प विरोधाला ऊर्जा मिळते आहे.

Operation Vijay - A Scintillating Success

"As soon as the Government came to know, that thousands of Pakistani intruders have crossed the LoC (Line of Control) and perched themselves on strategic heights six to seven kilometers inside Indian territory in Kargil sector of Jammu and Kashmir, the government realized file seriousness of the matter and an operation Vijay was launched to flush out the infiltrators from the Kargil sector."

On May 6, 1999. an Indian army patrol party first noticed some unusual movements in the Batalik sector. The extent of intrusion was discovered the next day itself when a second patrol party was sent to the area. By May 10-14, 1999, the Pakistani intruders were well into the Drass, Kaksar, Mashkoh and Batalik sectors, hazardously threatening the safety of Srinagar-Laeh highway, the virtual line of communication.

This was the third time in the history of Independent India that Pakistan tried to occupy the Kashmir by assisting or backing the infiltrators. The first time just after independence, a second time in 1965 as part of operation Gibraltar that leads to Indo-Pak second war and now the third time through Kargil.

It was on May 16, the Indian army launched counter insurgency operation and succeeded in forcing the Pakistan backed intruders to flee from one of the ridgelines in the Kargil sector. Reinfoicement were sent from the 15th Corps, to the affected area, but the area couldn't be fully cleared of the infiltrators.

The "Operation Vijay' was launched on 26th May 1999 to clear of the area fully from the infiltrators backed by the Pak army. The actions were limited to the Indian side of LoC, as stated officially. "This is the start of operations and they would continue till our defense forces occupy our territory. Any escalation of conflict will be entirely the responsibility of Pakistan", added further.

Pakistan's Prime Minister Mr. Nawaj Sharif said "A war on the subcontinent could not be ruled out". This was later retracted by Mr. Mushahid Hussain. The Information Minister of Pakistan. The war seemed imminent Mr. Vajpayee, the Prime Minister of India, admitted on 31st May, that war like situation had developed in Kargil sector, something like what had happened 52 years ago.

With the launching of Operation Vijay, the question on everybody's tongue was. How much time Indian Army would take to push back the intruders from the Kargil sector'.' Many experts opined to take at least six months to clear the area from Pak infiltrators and after six months there would be severe winter with snow all around in the sector, being part of Himalaya's range, but Indian forces stunned the world by pushing the intruders beyond the LoC within a period of just 50 days. Operation Vijay have been a magnificent success.

Within three days of launching of operation Vijay. about 400 intruders were flushed out of the Indian territory. Indian Air force played very crucial role in the Kargil war by striking at the forward supply bases and the rear side of bases of Pakistani backed intruders. The task indeed was frightening as the intruders took over in a very difficult mountain terrain. It was very challenging that the 1AF had further to see that the air strikes were limited to Indian side of LoC only. since it was not allowed to be extended to a full Hedged war, so air strikes were limited to cut off the infiltrator's links of supply and 1AF had to restrain itself from violating Pak side of the LoC.

Ever since the Operation Vijay began, the intruders and the Pakistani troops were forced to surrender one post after another in Kargil. After consolidating its hold in the Tolling area in Drass sector on June 15,1999. the Indian army started moving ahead slowly in Baltic and Drass sector blocking the supply line. wherever required and at several places one to one battles were also fought. As per an official report, there were approximately 900 Pakistani intruders in Kargil Drass sector as on 17th June,1999.

The LAF used fire power of Mirage-2000 to flatten the 14600 ft. high Munthodhalo supply camp and it could well pulverized the 80 odd structures built by the enemy with 500 pounds bombs. Mirage -2000 used also as vigilance Aircraft, while the other planes did their job.

General Josef Bali. The UN observer in Srinagar confirmed on June 19,1999,that heavily- armed Afghan warriors had crossed over the LoC. There is a lot of indication that former Afghan fighters from the war against Russia are now fighting here. Weapons provided for Afghanistan with large help from the Americans and the CIA are now in the hands of militants. General Bali also appealed to the big powers. "Not to sit back and let this situation play out"". The entire Tooling Ridge in the Drass subsector was cleared off intruders and Pakistani forces upto June 20,1999 by the Indian armed forces and it was a matter of exhilaration for Indian side. The Chief of Army Staff Gen. V.P. Maalik said on June 23. 1999, that Indian troops could cross the LoC provided there was a political mandate. He asserted that Pakistani army had conceived, planned and executed the Kargil attack and that the severing of the road between Zojila pass and Leh and exerting pressure on Indian defenses in Kargil, Batalik and Turtuk sectors was the Prime focus of the Pakistani operations. The Army Chief said that details of the LoC alignment and the process of delineation had been well documented and signatures to these records had been affixed the top army officers of the two countries in 1972.

In another major strike, the Indian army captured nearly 16000 ft. Jubar Hill in the Batalik sector on July 7. 1999 even as government refused any kind of safe passage to the Pakistani armed intruders in Kargil. The recapture of both the Jubar Hill and the Tiger Hill would also mean deprivation of any mischievous act by the enemy in creating a wedge between north and south of the Indus River in this area. The immense use of artillery, the Multi Barrel Rockets, the Bofors Howitzers and our field guns played decisive role in the capture of Tiger and Jubar Hills by the Indian Army.

By July 9, ninety percent of the Batalik sector was cleared of the Pakistani intrusion. Upto then about 661 Pakistani soldiers had been killed, while on the Indian side the toll was 321 and 476 injured.

With mounting pressure of the world and regular march of the Indian Army climaxed by the fall of Tiger Hills and the stark refusal of the US President, Mr. Bill Clinton to rescue Mr. Nawaz Sharif from the position where he had been cornered by his own betrayal of the Lahore agreement, the Kargil misadventure, forced Pakistan to call off its support to the intruders and its own army. Pakistan tried its best to gamer the support of LISA and the China, but drew a blank. None could be convinced by the Pakistan's concocted story and calling the intruders, Kashmir! Freedom fighters. On July 4, 1999, Pakistan agreed to withdraw its forces from the Indian side of the LoC. A joint statement issued in Washington at the end of prolonged meeting between President Bill Clinton and the Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaj Sharif, made it clear that concrete steps will be taken for the restoration of the LoC in accordance with the Simla Agreement.

As part of the diplomatic efforts to canvass more support for his country, the Pakistani Prime Minister had a stopover in London where he met the British Prime Minister. Mr. Tony Blair, who too turned down the idea of third party mediation and asked Pakistan to withdraw its army from the Indian side of the LoC and try to resolve the issue bilaterally,.

During all these Pakistan's diplomatic overtures, India had been taking every step with great caution and firmness. It declined bluntly an invitation from President Bill Clinton for talks in Washington when the Pakistani Prime Minister was already there, India made its stand very clear, No third party mediation in Kashmir or Kargil.

Without mincing words, India's Prime Minister and Home Minister asserted that India would continue its military operations and would not allow any foreign mercenary to remain on its soil till the last of the intruders is flushed out of the Indian territory.

On July 11, Pakistan agreed to declare July 16, as deadline for complete withdrawal of its Army regulars and other intruders. Pakistan bows to India's demand that its forces must withdraw to well north of the LoC in the Kargil sector by the deadline of July 16, morning. On July 13, Indian troops recaptured the strategic Bajraang post in the Kaksar subsector and on July 14 (50th Day) Pakistan virtually withdrawal its forces from the Indian side of LoC. It was a record win, a scintillating success for the Indian forces, to complete the operation Vijay within a record time of merely 50 days. Every inch of the territory was recovered. Long live the Martyrs who laid their lives in this most successful Operation Vijay.

Fundamental Rights

The Fundamental Rights in Indian constitution acts as a guarantee that all Indian citizens can and will live their lifes in peace as long as they live in Indian democracy. They include individual rigts common to most liberal democracies, such as equality before the law, freddom of speech and expression, freedom of association and peaceful assembly, freedom of religion, and the right to constitutional remedies for the protection of civil right.

Originally, the right to property was also included in the Fundamental Rights, however, the Forty-Fourth Amendment, passed in 1978, revised the status of property rights by stating that "No person shall be deprived of his property save by authority of law."

Following are the Fudamental Rights in India

Right to Equality	Article 14 :- Equality before law and equal protection of law Article 15 :- Prohibition of discrimination on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth. Article 16 :- Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment Article 17 :- End of untouchability Article 18 :- Abolition of titles, Military and academic distinctions are, however, exempted
Right to Freedom	Article 19 :- It guarantees the citizens of India the following six fundamentals freedoms:- Freedom of Speech and Expression Freedom of Assembly Freedom of form Associations Freedom of Movement Freedom of Residence and Settlement Freedom of Profession, Occupation, Trade and Bussiness Article 20 :- Protection in respect of conviction for offences Article 21 :- Protection of life and personal liberty Article 22 :- Protection against arrest and detention in certain cases
Right Against Exploitation	Article 23 :- Traffic in human beings prohibited Article 24 :- No child below the age of 14 can be employed
Right to freedom of Religion	Article 25 :- Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion Article 26 :- Freedom to manage religious affairs Article 27 :- Prohibits taxes on religious grounds Article 28 :- Freedom as to attendance at religious ceremonies in certain educational institutions
Cultural and Educational Rights	Article 29 :- Protection of interests of minorities Article 30 :- Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions Article 31 :- Omitted by the 44th Amendment Act
Right to Constitutional Remedies	Article 32 :- The right to move the Supreme Court in case of their violation (called Soul and heart of the Constitution by BR Ambedkar) Forms of Writ check Habeas Corpus :- Equality before law and equal protection of law

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All about Constitution

Idea for a Constituent Assembly for drafting a con­stitution for India was first provided by Bal Gangadhar Tilak in 1895.

The elections for the first Constituent Assembly were held in July 1946. Ini­tially it had 389 members, but later the reformed Assembly had 324 members.

The State of Hydrabad did not participate in elections to the Constituent Assembly.

The first meeting of Constituent Assembly was held on December 9, 1946— its president was Dr Sacchi­danand Sinha.

The second meeting was held on December 11, 1946. Its president was Dr Rajendra Prasad.

The Objectives Reso­lution was passed under chairmanship of J.L. Nehru.

The Draft of Indian Constitution was presented in October 1947. President of the Drafting Committee was Bhim Rao Ambedkar.

The Flag Committee worked under J.B. Kripalani.
The total time con­sumed to prepare the draft was 2 years, 11 months, 18 days. Total 11 meetings were held for this.

The Indian Constitu­tion was enacted on Novem­ber 26, 1946 and put into force on January 26, 1950.

The Constitution today has 448 Articles and 12 schedules. Originally there were 395 Articles and 8 schedules.

SOCIALIST, SECU­LAR, INTEGRITY—these words were added to the Preamble later, through the 42nd Amendment, 1976.

The Preamble con­tains aims and objectives of our Constitution.

Fundament Rights are contained in Part III— called “Magna Carta” of the Constitution. The idea was borrowed from USA. Initial­ly there were 7 fundamental rights, now there are only 6. (The Right to Property was deleted by the 44th amend­ment in 1978. It is now a judicial right—it has been moved to Article 300(A).)

The Supreme Court judgement in Keshwanand Bharti vs Kerala case provid­ed that Fundamental Rights can be altered by the Parlia­ment as long as the basic structure of the Constitution remains intact.

The Minerva Mills case ruling of the Supreme Court, however, ruled that Fundamental rights are basic part of the Constitution. The power to alter them was snatched away.

Fundamental Right of Equality provides for:
—Equality in govern­ment jobs (Article 16).
—No discriminations (Article 15).
—No untouchability (Article 17).
—Abolition of titles (Article 18).

The important free­doms granted are:
—Against exploitation (Article 23).
—Against child labour (Article 24).

The Right to Consti­tutional Remedies is provid­ed under Article 32.

The Constitution provides that High Courts and the Supreme Court can issue various writs (written orders) to safeguard free­dom of an individual. There are five types of writs:
Habeas Corpus—“may I have the body”—it orders to present reasons as well as physical presence of a body in court, within 24 hours of arrest.

Mandamus—issued to person, office or court—to enforce duties—also called “Param Aadesh”. 

Prohibition—issued to inferior courts, by superior courts—it prohibits (stops) action of acts outside their jurisdiction.
Quo Warranto—it asks how one has gained unau­thorised office.
Certiorari —Higher Court takes over case from lower courts.

Dr Ambedkar has called this article as “soul” of the Constitution -   Article 32.

Directive Principles of State Policy act as guide­lines or morals for the gov­ernment. They are contained in Part IV of the Constitu­tion. They were borrowed from Ireland. Some impor­tant directive principles are:
—Gram Panchayats (Article 40).
—Uniform civil code (Article 44).
—Free and compulsory education (Article 45).

Fundamental duties are contained in part IV(A). There are ten fundamental duties listed in the Constitu­tion. This idea was borrowed from Russia.

The Vice President is the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. However, he is not a member of any House.

If a member is found sitting in another House of Parliament, of which he is not a member, he has to pay a fine of Rs 5000.

Rajya Sabha has 250 members—238 elected and 12 nominated by the Presi­dent. Uttar Pradesh elects maximum number of mem­bers for the Rajya Sabha (34), followed by Bihar (22) and Maharashtra (19).

In one year time, the President must hold at least two meetings of the Rajya Sabha.

If a state of Emer­gency is declared, the Lok Sabha is dissolved, but not the Rajya Sabha (It is a per­manent House).

Lok Sabha has 552 members—530 elected from states, 20 from Union Teritories and 2 nominated from the Anglo-Indian Community.

During a state of emergency, the tenure of Lok Sabha can be extended by a maximum of one year.

Maximum number of members of Lok Sabha are elected from Uttar Pradesh (80 members), followed by Bihar (54) and Maharashtra (48).

Minimum age for becoming member of Lok Sabha is 25 years and Rajya Sabha is 30 years.

Minimum age to be eligible for the post of the President is 35 years.

The President is elected by members of both Houses of Parliament and State Legislative Assemblies.

The Vice President is elected by all members of the Parliament.
To discuss an impor­tant topic, the normal proce­dure of the Parliament is stopped under the Adjourn­ment motion.

Decision about whe­ther a Bill is a Money Bill or not is taken by the Lok Sabha Speaker. The first High Courts in India were estab­lished at Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras, in 1862. Alla­habad and Delhi were estab­lished next in 1866.

Maximum age to remain a High Court judge is 62 years and maximum age to remain a Supreme Court judge is 65 years.

The process for removal of Comptroller and Auditor General of India is same as that of judges of the Supreme Court.

Attorney General is the law expert to govern­ment. He can participate and speak in both Houses of Par­liament, but is not allowed to vote.

The idea of having a Lokpal to check corruption at the highest level has been borrowed from “Ombuds­man” of Sweden. In the States, we have the Lok Ayuk­ta.

There are three types of Emergencies that can be proclaimed by the President. Emergency under Article 352—due to war or internal rebellion. (Implemented three times (1962, 71, 75).)
Emergency under Article 356—Constitutional prob­lems. (Implemented many times, in various States like J&K, Punjab, etc.)
Emergency under Article 360—Financial Emergency. (Not implemented so far).

The Constitution ini­tially recognised 14 National Languages. Later, four more were added. These were: Sindhi (21st amendment), Nepali, Konkani and Manipuri (71st amendment).

To gain the status of a National Party, a political party must be recognised in four or more States, attaining at least 4% votes on national scale and 9% in each State.

The flag of the Con­gress party was accepted as the National Flag (with few changes) on July 22, 1947.

The new Flag Code of India gives freedom to individuals to hoist the flag on all days, but with due respect to the flag.

The Question hour in the Parliament is observed from 11 am to 12 noon. The Zero hour is observed from 12:00 noon to 1:00 pm.

Balwant Rai Mehta Committee suggested a three-tier structure for Pan­chayati Raj—Gram Pancha­yat village level, Panchayat Samiti at block level and Zila Parishad in districts.

First Constitutional Amendment—1951—put a ban on propagating ideas to harm friendly relations with foreign countries.

Planning Commis­sion is only an advisory and specialist body. Its chairman is the Prime Minister.
National Develop­ment Council is the main body concerned with the actual planning process. Its chairman is also the Prime Minister.

The first leader of the Opposition was Ram Subhag Singh, in 1969.
The shortest Lok Sabha span was 13 days (12th Lok Sabha in 1998).
Although the Parlia­ment can pass impeachment motion against judges, their conduct cannot be discussed by it.

There are at present 21 High Courts in India.

Article 370 gives special status to Jammu & Kashmir.
The Indian Consti­tution was the first of the preceding two centuries which was not imposed by an imperial power, but was made by the people them­selves, through representa­tives in a Constituent Assembly.

The Preamble of the Indian Constitution is not enforceable in a court of law. It states the objects which the Constitution seeks to establish.

The Indian Constitu­tion endows the Judiciary with power of declaring a law as unconstitutional if it is beyond the competence of the Legislature according to the distribution of powers provided by the Constitu­tion, or if it is in contraven­tion of the fundamental rights or of any other mandatory provision, e.g. Articles 286, 299, 301 and 304.

As part of the inte­gration of various Indian States into the Dominion of India a three-fold process of integration, known as the Patel Scheme, was imple­mented.
(i) 216 States were merged into the respective Provinces, geographically contiguous to them. These merged States were included in the territories of the States in Part B in the First Sche­dule of the Constitution. The process of merger started with the merger of Orissa and Chattisgarh States with the then province of Orissa, on January 1, 1948. The last instance was merger of Cooch-Behar with West Ben­gal in January 1950.
(ii) 61 States were con­verted into Centrally-admin­istered areas and included in Part C of the First Schedule.
(iii) The third form was consolidation of groups of States into new viable units, known as Union of States. The first Union formed was the Saurashtra Union on February 15, 1948. The last one was Union of Travan­core-Cochin on July 1, 1949. As many as 275 States were integrated into five Unions—Madhya Bharat, Patiala and East Punjab States Union, Rajasthan, Saurashtra and Travancore-Cochin. These were included in Part B of the First Sche­dule. Besides, Hyderabad, J&K and Mysore were also included in Part B.

At the time of acces­sion to the Dominion of India, the States had acceded only on three subjects (Defence, Foreign Affairs and Communications). Lat­er, revised Instruments of Accession were signed by which all States acceded in respect of all matters includ­ed in Union and Concurrent Lists, except only those relat­ing to taxation.

The process of inte­gration culminated in the Constitution (7th Amend­ment) Act, 1956, which abol­ished Part B States as a class and included all the States in Part A and B in one list.

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